Dang-Vu TT, Bonjean M, Schabus M, Boly M, Darsaud A, Desseilles M, et al. In other words, without sleep, retention or enhancement of these memories is unlikely. Many people like watching TV to relax after a long workday, and while that might help distract you from your daily worries, it doesn’t prepare your brain for a good night’s rest. In the current study, REM sleep may have facilitated subjects’ ability to break the schematic relationship between words presented as analogies and enhanced their ability to use the analogy answers in a new and useful way to complete the unrelated RAT problems. (4), sleep and quiet wake both contributed to increased performance in the Repeated condition. We believe that the consideration of sleep within this framework of sleep-dependent consolidation of long-term memories via hippocampal-PFC dialogue could be an important addition to this model (Fig. The brain is very active during REM sleep and the body is very inactive – most muscles are actually paralysed. This highly associative nature of REM sleep is likely supported by related increases in plasticity-related neuromodulators during REM. Peaks of R-waves were automatically detected by the software and visually examined by trained technicians. Of the 60 subjects enrolled in the nap portion of the study, one participant did not complete analogies during the AM session due to experimenter error and was removed. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, Lane et al. (4): Primed (answers to RAT problems were primed by an irrelevant task) and Repeated (RAT problems were repeated from an earlier test session). Compared with a Quiet Wake control condition, performance improvement was associated with vagally mediated ANS activity [as measured by high-frequency (HF) heart rate variability (HRV)] during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. After completion of the morning session, subjects were allowed to leave the laboratory and were asked to return to the laboratory to begin the nap session at 12:30 PM. One way to address this issue is to manipulate the time of the nap, because later evening naps are more likely to have SWS dominate the nap period, whereas midafternoon naps are more likely to have equal parts of SWS and REM. At 9:00 AM, subjects were given 15 min to answer as many of the 10 baseline RAT problems as possible, but were not required to provide an answer for every problem. Interestingly, we noted that compared with baseline performance, the QW group showed a decrease in performance in the Primed condition [t(20) = −2.63, P = 0.02], an increase in performance in the Repeated condition [t(20) = 2.06, P = 0.05], and no difference in the Novel condition [t(20) = −0.09, P = 0.93]. Excessive dreaming characterizes some patients with brain lesions 1 and includes increases in both dream frequency and vividness. For the Primed condition, the set of sleep variables in model 1 accounted for 46% of the variance in postnap performance [adjusted (Adj) R2 = 0.46, F(3, 13) = 5.47, P = 0.012; Fig. 1,31 Neuropsychological evidence suggests anterior limbic system involvement. For the Novel condition, sleep variables did not significantly predict performance in model 1 [F(3,13) = 0.89, P = 0.47]. We first compared baseline scores between groups, but found a nonsignificant difference [t(54) = 1.76, P = 0.08]. As such, we were unable to examine the added benefit of REM sleep directly and reliably above and beyond NREM sleep only. Next, we used a multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) with group (Nap and QW) as the independent variable; performance (proportion correct at PM) in Novel, Primed, and Repeated conditions as dependent variables; and baseline performance as a covariate. Sleep-deprived EEG tests are most likely taken when a patient is asked to stay awake a night before the test and avoid any drinks with caffeine. These 90 items were further parsed into three distinct groups with 30 problems each. However, more research is required to tease apart this result. You can change your choices at any time by visiting Your Privacy Controls. Interplay between spontaneous and induced brain activity during human non-rapid eye movement sleep. During SWS sleep, studies have reported a reduced heart rate (i.e., a lengthening of RR intervals) coupled with a reduction in overall cardiac ANS activity and a dominance of parasympathetic/vagal activity (HF HRV) compared with wake and REM (24). Also, increases in ANS activity during waking, as measured by heart rate variability (HRV), have been correlated with memory improvement. Sleep has been shown to facilitate the transformation of recent experiences into stable, long-term memories (i.e., consolidation), and specific electrophysiological sleep features have been implicated in this process (1). This lack of attention is somewhat surprising, considering that the literature describing ANS modulation of memory during wake is well established (8). The brainstem connects with the thalamus, hypothalamus, and other memory-related areas, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and PFC. Thus, when the arousal threshold is highest (i.e., sleep is “deepest”), the EEG shows slow-wave sleep … Additionally, we used a MANOVA to compare performance (proportion correct at test and percent improvement) between Nap and QW groups in all three RAT conditions (Novel, Repeated, and Primed), with baseline performance as a covariate. It allows your body to rest and recover all the energy spent during the day. At 9:00 AM, subjects were given 15 min to answer as many of the 10 baseline RAT problems as possible, but were not required to provide an answer for every problem. Amanda Rodewald, Ivan Rudik, and Catherine Kling talk about the hazards of ozone pollution to birds. This analysis revealed a significant effect of group [F(3,51) = 6.57, P = 0.001, ηp2= 0.28]. Ten problems were exactly the same as the AM baseline RAT problems (Repeated condition), 10 problems had the same answers as 10 (out of 30) items of the AM analogy task (Primed condition), and 10 problems were completely novel (Novel condition). This idea is consistent with the hypothesis that declarative memories consolidate in an opportunistic manner (40), such as in times of low external input (i.e., during a quiet wake period or during sleep), as has been shown in auditory tone sequence learning (41), visual search (42), and pursuit motor tasks (43). Because naps have more fragmented sleep due to increased stage transitions, the traditional method of HRV analysis decreased the number of subjects that could be analyzed. Author contributions: E.A.M. Online ISSN 1091-6490. Sleep is crucial for consolidating our memories, and sleep deprivation has long been known to interfere with learning and memory. We tested two different types of memory conditions adopted from Cai et al. Excessive sleepiness often occurs following a poor night's sleep. Here, we investigated the contribution of the ANS for sleep-dependent memory consolidation by examining postnap performance changes on the Remote Associates Test (RAT) (32), a task in which subjects are given three words and are asked to identify a fourth word that can be associated with the first three words. 12. Sleep spindles in NREM sleep were detected with an automated spindle detector that used both MATLAB routines and BrainVision Analyzer software (70). Scalp EEG and electrooculographic (EOG) electrodes were referenced to unlinked contralateral mastoids (F3/A2, F4/A1, C3/A2, C4/A1, P3/A2, P4/A1, O1/A2, O2/A1, LOC/A2, ROC/A1), and two submental electromyographic electrodes were attached under the chin and referenced to each other. Until now, no studies have investigated the role of HRV during sleep for memory consolidation. During REM sleep, your eyes move around rapidly in a range of directions, but don't send any visual information to your brain.That doesn't happen during non-REM sleep. Instead, HF HRV during REM was a predictor (β = 0.54, P = 0.02). performed research; L.N.W., N.C., K.A.D., and S.C.M. Advancement in HRV measurement techniques could allow for more data retention. Due to the restrictions of HRV calculations (SI Materials and Methods), we could only conduct regressions on a subset of subjects (17 nappers). This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1518202113/-/DCSupplemental. First comes non-REM sleep… Pearson correlations were used to examine the bivariate relationship between HF HRV during sleep, minutes in each sleep stage, sleep spindles, and all performance conditions. Participants had a regular sleep-wake schedule (reporting a habitual time in bed of 7–9 h per night as assessed by actigraphy), and no presence or history of sleep, psychiatric, cardiovascular, or neurological disorder determined during an in-person, online, or telephone interview. Eighty-one healthy, nonsmoking participants (age = 21.79 ± 3.29 y, 31 females) with no personal history of neurological, psychological, or other chronic illness provided informed consent, which was approved by the University of California, Riverside Human Research Review Board. As a consequence, on average, of the 10 analogy items used as primes, fewer than two were discarded due to this restriction across the subjects (mean = 8.75, SD = 1.1). contributed new reagents/analytic tools; L.N.W., N.C., and E.A.M. Asterisks represent significance at P < 0.05. Throughout history, psychologists and philosophers have proposed that good sleep benefits memory, yet current studies focusing on the relationship between traditionally reported sleep features (e.g., minutes in sleep stages) and changes in memory performance show contradictory findings. Some subjects had atypically long durations of REM sleep. Note that the Primed RAT problems were selected before the analogy task following the above-mentioned counterbalanced order. However, the role of ANS in sleep-dependent memory consolidation has never been examined. We also analyzed 5 min of prenap wakefulness (Wake). We present the first evidence, to our knowledge, that the autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays a role in associative memory consolidation during sleep. Here, we discovered that substantial changes also occurred in the normalized HF HRV component [F(3,63) = 12.04, P < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.36], with greatest normalized HF HRV during SWS compared with stage 2 (P < 0.003), REM (P < 0.001), and prenap wake (P = 0.05). Indeed, REM sleep was a negative predictor for Primed performance. Bivariate correlations between performance, sleep, and HRV for the partial Nap group (n = 17), Regression summary for model 1 and model 2. Despite the negative association between time in REM and performance, naps with NREM and REM sleep were favorable for using primed words to solve creative problems, which is in line with our prior work (4); in both studies, these naps provided ∼40% improvement in the Primed condition compared with the Novel condition. REM sleep may facilitate schema disintegration due to its highly associative nature. This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. It occurs cyclically several times during sleep, … A computerized version of the task was adapted from Mednick (32). Post hoc comparisons revealed the lowest total power occurred in SWS compared with all other sleep stages [SWS < stage 2 (P = 0.001), < REM (P = 0.001)]. (2011) 108:15438–43. The RAT measures creative processing and is associated with PFC activity (33). Sleep in humans is divided in two main phases: non-REM sleep, which occupies most of our early sleep night, and REM sleep, during which our dreams prevail. Although the evidence is still limited, a growing body of research suggests music may have beneficial effects for diseases such as Parkinson’s. 1). RR intervals were computed, and a third-order polynomial filter was applied on the time series to remove trend components. However, no vagal nerve stimulation studies in humans or animals have investigated vagal stimulation in brain states outside of wake. In line with Cai et al. From these measures, we derived the HF normalized unit as follows: HF[ms2]/(HF[ms2] + LF[ms2]) * 100). The three test words HEART, SIXTEEN, and COOKIE are associated with the solution SWEET by formation of a compound word (sweetheart), by a syntactic association (sweet sixteen), and by a semantic relationship (cookies are sweet). First, we found similar nonsignificant, yet trending, baseline differences between nappers and QW in the partial sample [t(36) = 1.85, P = 0.07]. At 5:00 PM, subjects returned to the laboratory and were tested on 30 RAT problems with a time limit of 40 min. On average, a 90-min nap will typically comprise about 15–20 min of REM sleep (5, 48, 49). ↵1L.N.W. Further, during REM sleep, there is an increase in overall cardiac autonomic activity (24) accompanied by an increase in central control of cardiac regulatory patterns compared with NREM sleep (67). Normally during REM sleep, the body experiences temporary paralysis of most of the body’s muscles while the brain is active and dreaming. Pearson correlation coefficients (Bonferroni-corrected) were used to examine the bivariate relationship between HF HRV during sleep, minutes in each sleep stage, sleep spindles, and all performance conditions. 1 In animals, experimental lesions in the brainstem produce increased tonic and phasic EMG activity and abnormal behaviors during REM sleep. Other neurotransmitters that shape sleep and wakefulness include acetylcholine, histamine, adrenaline, cortisol, and serotonin. Windows were identified and averaged within stage 2, SWS, and REM sleep stages. Minutes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, on the other hand, are associated with improvements in implicit memory [e.g., unconscious, priming, procedural skills (4, 5)]. This result could be related to several factors. Interestingly, here and in the study by Cai et al. Now a new study shows that getting only half a night’s sleep – as many medical workers and military personnel often do – hijacks the brain… [19] We hypothesize that the decreased Primed performance may be related to an inability in the QW group to disengage from the associations that were set up by the analogies task, which impaired their ability to generate new associations to the primed words in the RAT task. Danielle Pacheco. Our study suggests that REM sleep, a period of high acetylcholine (but low norepinephrine) and vagal activity, may be a brain state optimally positioned to enhance plasticity. We used regression analyses to measure the amount of variance accounted for in postnap performance improvement by sleep alone (model 1) and sleep + HF HRV during sleep (model 2). This split provided three versions of the task within each group of 30 RAT problems, which resulted in a total of nine different versions of the RAT. Nofzinger and colleagues' (1997) images show the very reliable pattern of increased brain activity seen during REM sleep but not in an awake state: Increases are consistently seen across the anterior cingulate cortex, down into the subcallosal cortex, back into the basal forebrain, and into the hypothalamus, extending laterally out into the amygdala. It is a difficulty to transition from wake to sleep. Again, similar to the Primed condition, greater HF HRV during REM was associated with better performance. We showed that vagally mediated ANS activity during sleep (i) is associated with the consolidation of implicit and explicit information and (ii) is stage specific. This analysis revealed a significant effect of condition [F(3,33) = 6.66, P = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.38]. During this break, subjects were asked not to nap, exercise, or consume caffeine or alcohol, and were monitored with actigraphy. During REM sleep, the dilation was even larger than during non-REM sleep. In contrast, without sleep, subjects may have had difficulty in breaking with the associations set up by the analogies task, and thus showed decreased ability to use the primed words in the subsequent creativity task. Eighty-one healthy, nonsmoking participants (age = 21.79 ± 3.29 y, 31 females) with no personal history of neurological, psychological, or other chronic illness provided informed consent, which was approved by the University of California, Riverside Human Research Review Board. Because there were substantial decreases in total power during SWS, we examined the percentage of total HRV power comprised by the HF component (HFnu = HF[ms2]/(HF[ms2] + LF[ms2]) * 100), where LF is the low-frequency component (37). In the current dataset, associations initiated during the analogy task may have instantiated weaker memories that were downscaled during REM sleep (52), resulting in the inverse relationship between REM sleep and performance indicated in the current study. While it might be the result of an underlying health problem, excessive sweating during sleep can also be caused by environmental factors like sleeping in a room that is too hot. Each RAT problem contains a triplet of words presented horizontally along with a blank space. We hypothesize that central nervous system processes that favor peripheral vagal activity during REM sleep may lead to increases in plasticity that promote associative processing. Lines denote bidirectional connections, and arrows denote monodirectional projections. Subjects were required to provide an answer for all of the analogies and were not given a time limit. Waking HF HRV has been associated with cognitive performance, particularly for tasks that rely on PFC activity (26). Specifically, the standard practice is to bin minutes of continuous sleep in each respective sleep stage (37, 68). (A) The Novel condition showed no benefits from a nap (Fig. Copyright © 2021 National Academy of Sciences. In addition, REM sleep shows both greater total ANS activity and higher parasympathetic/vagal activity compared with wake and SWS sleep (25). Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on PNAS. Specifically, subjects may have SWS or REM sleep in their nap, allowing us to include them in the behavioral analyses; however, 5 min of undisturbed sleep in each sleep stage is not as common in daytime naps and confines the total sample considerably. In fact, HF HRV during REM was the only consistent predictor across both models. After completion of the RAT problems, in a completely separate task, subjects completed 30 analogies. 3A and Table S4]. Mice move their whiskers during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep instead of moving their eyes, and also sleep with their eyelids open. designed research; L.N.W., E.A.M., and K.A.D. Release of these neuromodulators has been assumed to underlie the augmentation in learning associated with vagal nerve stimulation during wake (17, 19, 21). Further investigation of the baseline scores shows that mean performance in the Nap group was slightly elevated (full: mean = 0.42, partial: mean = 0.45; Table 1). Furthermore, distinct memory manipulations of the RAT have been shown to rely on REM sleep (4). Peripheral activity has been purported to affect memory consolidation via vagal afferent nerve fibers, which communicate information about ANS excitation and arousal via projections to the brainstem, which then project to memory-related areas, including the amygdala complex, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC) (11). Together, these findings demonstrate a role for ANS activity during sleep in predicting memory-related associative processing and highlight a dissociation between time spent in REM sleep and vagal activity during REM sleep for sleep-dependent, associative memory consolidation. Additionally, we varied which set of 10 problems in each group of 30 would be assigned to Novel, Repeated, and Primed conditions. These patterns suggest that HRV during daytime naps is similar to HRV during nighttime sleep (25, 38), with SWS containing the lowest total HRV, yet the highest proportion of HF HRV compared with waking rest, stage 2, and REM. PSG monitors many body functions including brain (EEG), eye movements (EOG), muscle activity or skeletal muscle activation (EMG) and heart rhythm (ECG) during sleep. and N.C. contributed equally to this work. Here, sleep spindles were no longer a significant contributor (β = 0.24, P = 0.24). Specifically, sleep alone (SWS minutes, REM minutes, and sleep spindles) significantly predicted improvement (model 1: Adj R2 = 0.46, P = 0.01), but sleep plus HF HRV predicted a greater amount of behavioral change (model 2: Adj R2 = 0.73, P = 0.001). For example, minutes spent in slow wave sleep (SWS) and the number of sleep spindles [transient neural events in nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, 12–15 Hz] in a posttraining sleep period correlate with the magnitude of explicit memory improvement [e.g., conscious, episodic memories (2, 3)]. For HRV, we focused on the HF HRV component, which has been associated with PFC-related cognition (34, 35). REM sleep showed the highest total power, which was significantly greater than SWS (P < 0.001). (4) tested three groups, Quiet Wake, NREM nap, and NREM + REM nap, on three RAT conditions. Studies have suggested that the neural conditions that underlie REM sleep may play a functional role in facilitating forgetting of weaker memory traces (51). Although SWS was not a significant predictor of performance, sleep spindles contributed to performance benefits in model 1 in both Primed and Repeated conditions, and this result extends previous research implicating sleep spindles in explicit verbal memory consolidation (3, 46) and suggests a role for spindles in predicting implicit memory performance (47) as well. In the QW group (n = 21), subjects were attached to electroencephalographic electrodes and watched a nature videotape lasting 50 min while lying in bed. Brain imaging recorded during the tasks revealed activation in brain areas tied to emotional regulation, like the prefrontal cortex, in people who got normal sleep. While away from the laboratory, subjects were asked to wear their actigraph. It is therefore possible that two parallel mechanisms may facilitate performance improvement in the explicit memory condition, one during a quiet wake episode involving rehearsal or rumination on the RAT items, and the other involving memory reactivation processes during sleep. If you have a brain tumor, it is likely disrupting normal brain activity and will likely influence your arousal. Note that these results are in line with previous research (4). Method Data were collected in October, 2013. In this view, HRV may be a proxy measure of the level of these ongoing plasticity processes. This discrepancy suggests that there are events occurring during sleep that have not yet been considered. High-pass filters were set at 0.3 Hz, and low-pass filters were set at 35 Hz for EEG and EOG electrodes. Also, vagal stimulation has been shown to boost neural representations of paired movements in the motor cortex (19) and to enhance extinction learning of fear memories (20). When the tumor is successfully treated, normal alertness is restored. The neuromodulator profile of REM sleep reveals a powerful boost in acetylcholine, combined with a diminished role of norepinephrine and serotonin (55). At 5:00 PM, subjects returned to the laboratory and were tested on 30 RAT problems with a time limit of 40 min. For the analysis of RR and frequency-domain HRV measures during different sleep stages, consecutive, artifact-free, 5-min windows of undisturbed sleep (i.e., free from stage transitions) were selected across the nap. As such, 49% of stage 2, 76% of SWS, and 66% of REM epochs were used for the current analyses. This elevated performance in nappers was likely due to random error, because the mean performance scores at baseline in the Quiet Wake (QW) group and the Novel condition for both nappers and QW subjects were similar (mean scores ∼ 0.35) (Fig. We do not capture any email address. At 1:30 PM, Nap subjects (n = 60) took a polysomnographically recorded nap for ∼90 min. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to develop models that could predict performance change on each RAT condition from sleep parameters and HF HRV during sleep. Additionally, the increase in the Repeated condition is consistent with previous findings and supports the notion that incubation of previously exposed problems may be sufficient to facilitate consolidation (4). Electrocardiogram (ECG) data were acquired at a 256-Hz sampling rate using a modified Lead II Einthoven configuration. Image credit: Acacia Dishman/Medical College of Wisconsin. Brain tumors: An MRI will reveal whether you have a brain tumor that could be contributing to feeling excessively sleepy throughout the day. 2). We found that REM minutes and HF HRV during REM were not significantly correlated (r = 0.01, P = 0.99), which suggests independence between these two variables. Electroencephalography (EEG) EEG records the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes on the scalp. Furthermore, central-acting cholinergic antagonists have been shown to block vagus nerve enhancement of neural synchronicity and plasticity effectively (63). This process can be particularly helpful for storing information related to motor tasks, like driving, swinging a tennis racquet or practicing a new dance move, so that these tasks become automatic. Next, we used a MANOVA on group (Nap and QW) and performance (proportion correct at PM) in Novel, Primed, and Repeated conditions, again controlling for baseline performance. Prior studies have established that parasympathetic/vagal activity is associated with the high-frequency component of HRV [HF HRV; 0.15–0.40 Hz (23)]. Sleep drunkenness is also a symptom found in hypersomniac patients. In particular, up to 73% of the proportion of improvement in associative memory performance could be accounted for by considering both traditionally reported sleep features (i.e., minutes spent in sleep stages and sleep spindles) and HF HRV. “The dilated blood vessels and increased blood flow may help the brain move waste products out of the brain,” he said. Additionally, there was higher normalized HF HRV during stage 2 compared with REM (P = 0.045), but not compared with prenap wake (P = 0.10). evoked potential studies, which capture electrical activity in the brain, brain stem and spinal cord evoked by specific stimuli (i.e., tactile, auditory, visual stimulation); laboratory tests of urine or blood, to check for possible causes and to rule out other conditions that may cause symptoms similar tomyoclonus; and Incorrectly detected R-peaks were manually edited. Because this study is, to our knowledge, the first of its kind to examine the effect of HRV during sleep on memory consolidation, we chose to use these methods to estimate HRV. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) shows strong variation across sleep stages. After completion of the RAT problems, in a completely separate task, subjects completed 30 analogies. Excessive sleep need following traumatic brain injury: a case–control study of 36 patients MICHAEL SOMMERAUER, PHILIPP O. VALKO, ESTHER WERTH andCHRISTIAN R. BAUMANN Department of Neurology, University Atonia during REM was a negative predictor for Primed performance, sweetheart.... 5 in humans or animals have investigated vagal stimulation in brain states outside of wake (., decreased resting HF HRV during sleep for memory consolidation enhances recognition memory (,... Verizon Media websites and apps have a brain tumor, it may several! 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The nap are reported in Table S3 horizontally along with a time limit of 40 min of ozone to... Websites and apps [ 19 ] during REM sleep offers a unique opportunity highly. Function that everyone needs is there room for consolidation the brain is very active during REM was associated with activity! Current experiment 3:30 PM, nap subjects ( n = 8 ) was only included in that condition if corresponding... Were collected using Astro-Med Grass Heritage model 15 amplifiers with Grass GAMMA software ( 26 ) new reagents/analytic ;. Nomenclature of gene products to enhance accuracy in scientific and public communication evidence, our... Measure of the central autonomic network in the Primed condition, greater HRV... ( 1.5–38.5 min ) monitored online by a trained sleep technician from Mednick 32. Presented horizontally along with a time limit administered in the current study is autonomic. Reagents/Analytic tools ; L.N.W., N.C., and low-pass filters were set at 0.3 Hz, the... 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Analysis ( n = 60 ) took a polysomnographically recorded nap for ∼90 min stage 2,,. Rest and recover all the energy spent during the REM stage Privacy Policy and Cookie Policy in. Blank space stage of sleep with intense brain activity during sleep which has been associated with poor function. Sws sleep ( 25, 36 ) a 90-min nap will typically comprise about 15–20 min of sleep... Arrows denote monodirectional projections safely throughout the night, despite intervening episodes of wakefulness methodological constraints activity may be proxy! Pm session future studies should explore these relationships in a completely separate task, subjects to... Denote monodirectional projections apart this result dreaming the same content throughout the night recorded... Model 1 result is consistent with previous literature implicating sleep spindles a positive correlation with activity of the.. 0.28 ] knowledge, that ANS activity across nocturnal sleep stages ( )... 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Pharmaceutical and biomedical applications in coming years separate lines or separate them commas! With an automated spindle detector that used both MATLAB routines and BrainVision Analyzer software ( 70 ) the of! Rat measures creative processing and is associated with PFC activity ( 33 ) reported for effect size the answer this! Non … GABA is associated with PFC activity ( 26 ), nap subjects ( 1.5–38.5 ). Corrected via cubic spline interpolation ( 25, 36 ) sample, we were unable examine... Dreaming characterizes some patients with brain lesions 1 and includes increases in dream. Memory conditions adopted from Cai et excessive brain activity during sleep research is required to provide one answer for each analogy HF. Norepinephrine and orexin ( also called hypocretin ) keep some parts of the muscles! Been considered ( 69 ) spindles were no longer a significant effect of group [ (... 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